oracle 常用sql语句
select t.tablespace_name, round(sum(bytes/(1024*1024)),0) ts_size
from dba_tablespaces t, dba_data_files d
where t.tablespace_name = d.tablespace_name
group by t.tablespace_name;
2、查看表空间物理文件的名称及大小
select tablespace_name, file_id, file_name,
round(bytes/(1024*1024),0) total_space
from dba_data_files
order by tablespace_name;
3、查看回滚段名称及大小
select segment_name, tablespace_name, r.status,
(initial_extent/1024) InitialExtent,(next_extent/1024) NextExtent,
max_extents, v.curext CurExtent
From dba_rollback_segs r, v$rollstat v
Where r.segment_id = v.usn(+)
order by segment_name ;
4、查看控制文件
select name from v$controlfile;
5、查看日志文件
select member from v$logfile;
6、查看表空间的使用情况
select sum(bytes)/(1024*1024) as free_space,tablespace_name
from dba_free_space
group by tablespace_name;
SELECT A.TABLESPACE_NAME,A.BYTES TOTAL,B.BYTES USED, C.BYTES FREE,
(B.BYTES*100)/A.BYTES “% USED”,(C.BYTES*100)/A.BYTES “% FREE”
FROM SYS.SM$TS_AVAIL A,SYS.SM$TS_USED B,SYS.SM$TS_FREE C
WHERE A.TABLESPACE_NAME=B.TABLESPACE_NAME AND A.TABLESPACE_NAME=C.TABLESPACE_NAME;
7、查看数据库库对象
select owner, object_type, status, count(*) count# from all_objects group by owner, object_type, status;
8、查看数据库的版本
Select version FROM Product_component_version
Where SUBSTR(PRODUCT,1,6)=’Oracle’;
9、查看数据库的创建日期和归档方式
Select Created, Log_Mode, Log_Mode From V$Database;
10、捕捉运行很久的SQL
column username format a12
column opname format a16
column progress format a8
select username,sid,opname,
round(sofar*100 / totalwork,0) ‘%’ as progress,
time_remaining,sql_text
from v$session_longops , v$sql
where time_remaining <> 0
and sql_address = address
and sql_hash_value = hash_value
/
11、查看数据表的参数信息
SELECT partition_name, high_value, high_value_length, tablespace_name,
pct_free, pct_used, ini_trans, max_trans, initial_extent,
next_extent, min_extent, max_extent, pct_increase, FREELISTS,
freelist_groups, LOGGING, BUFFER_POOL, num_rows, blocks,
empty_blocks, avg_space, chain_cnt, avg_row_len, sample_size,
last_analyzed
FROM dba_tab_partitions
–WHERE table_name = :tname AND table_owner = :towner
ORDER BY partition_position
12、查看还没提交的事务
select * from v$locked_object;
select * from v$transaction;
13、查找object为哪些进程所用
select
p.spid,
s.sid,
s.serial# serial_num,
s.username user_name,
a.type object_type,
s.osuser os_user_name,
a.owner,
a.object object_name,
decode(sign(48 - command),
1,
to_char(command), ‘Action Code #’ to_char(command) ) action,
p.program oracle_process,
s.terminal terminal,
s.program program,
s.status session_status
from v$session s, v$access a, v$process p
where s.paddr = p.addr and
s.type = ‘USER’ and
a.sid = s.sid and
a.object=’SUBSCRIBER_ATTR’
order by s.username, s.osuser
14、回滚段查看
select rownum, sys.dba_rollback_segs.segment_name Name, v$rollstat.extents
Extents, v$rollstat.rssize Size_in_Bytes, v$rollstat.xacts XActs,
v$rollstat.gets Gets, v$rollstat.waits Waits, v$rollstat.writes Writes,
sys.dba_rollback_segs.status status from v$rollstat, sys.dba_rollback_segs,
v$rollname where v$rollname.name(+) = sys.dba_rollback_segs.segment_name and
v$rollstat.usn (+) = v$rollname.usn order by rownum
15、耗资源的进程（top session）
select s.schemaname schema_name, decode(sign(48 - command), 1,
to_char(command), ‘Action Code #’ to_char(command) ) action, status
session_status, s.osuser os_user_name, s.sid, p.spid , s.serial# serial_num,
nvl(s.username, ‘[Oracle process]’) user_name, s.terminal terminal,
s.program program, st.value criteria_value from v$sesstat st, v$session s , v$processp
where st.sid = s.sid and st.statistic# = to_number(’38′) and (’ALL’ = ‘ALL’
or s.status = ‘ALL’) and p.addr = s.paddr order by st.value desc, p.spid asc, s.username asc, s.osuser asc
library cache pin原理
library cache pin
=================
原理
~~~~~
An Oracle instance has a library cache that contains the description of
different types of objects e.g. cursors, indexes, tables, views, procedures,
… Those objects cannot be changed when they are used. They are locked by a
mechanism based on library locks and pins. A session that need to use an object
will first acquire a library lock in a certain mode (null, shared or exclusive)
on the object, in order to prevent other sessions from accessing the same
object (e.g. exclusive lock when recompiling a package or view) or to maintain
the object definition for a long time. Locking an object is sometimes referred
as the job to locate it in the library cache and lock it in a certain mode.
If the session wants to modify or examine the object, it must acquire after
the lock also a pin in a certain mode (again null, shared or exclusive).
Each SQL statement that want to use/modify objects that are locked or pinned
and whose lock/pin mode is incompatible with the requested mode, will wait
on events like ‘library cache pin’ or ‘library cache lock’ until a timeout
occurs. The timeout normally occurs after 5 minutes and the SQL statement
then ends with an ORA-4021. If a deadlock is detected, an ORA-4020 is given
back.
Dealing with slow downs related to “mysterious” library cache pins
and load locks we should look for the reason of the database object
invalidations. They are likely to be triggered by actions causing
changes to “LAST_DDL” attribute of database objects that have other
dependent ones. Typically they are the object maintenance operations -
ALTER, GRANT, REVOKE, replacing views, etc. This behavior is described
in Oracle Server Application Developer’s Guide as object dependency
maintenance.
After object invalidation, Oracle tries to recompile the object at the
time of the first access to it. It may be a problem in case when other
sessions have pinned the object to the library cache. It is obvious that
it is more likely to occur with more active users and with more complex
dependencies (eg. many cross-dependent packages or package bodies).
In some cases waiting for object recompilation may even take hours
blocking all the sessions trying to access it.
ORA-04021 timeout occurred while waiting to lock object %s%s%s%s%s”.
Cause: While trying to lock a library object, a time-out occurred.
Action: Retry the operation later.
ORA-04020 deadlock detected while trying to lock object %s%s%s%s%s
Cause: While trying to lock a library object, a deadlock is detected.
Action: Retry the operation later.
(see <Note.166924.1>)
2. Which views can be used to detect library locking problems?
—————————————————————-
Different views can be used to detect pin/locks:
DBA_KGLLOCK : one row for each lock or pin of the instance
-KGLLKUSE session address
-KGLLKHDL Pin/lock handle
-KGLLKMOD/KGLLKREQ Holding/requested mode
0 no lock/pin held
1 null mode
2 share mode
3 exclusive mode
-KGLLKTYPE Pin/lock
(created via the $ORACLE_HOME/rdbms/admin/catblock.sql)
V$ACCESS : one row for each object locked by any user
-SID session sid
-OWNER username
-OBJECT object name
-TYPE object type
V$DB_OBJECT_CACHE : one row for each object in the library cache
-OWNER object owner
-NAME object name or cursor text
-TYPE object type
-LOCKS number of locks on this object
-PINS number of pins on this object
DBA_DDL_LOCKS : one row for each object that is locked (exception made of the cursors)
-SESSION_ID
-OWNER
-NAME
-TYPE
-MODE_HELD
-MODE_REQUESTED
V$SESSION_WAIT : each session waiting on a library cache pin or lock is blocked by some other session
-p1 = object address
-p2 = lock/pin address
3. How to find out why an ORA-4021 occurs?
——————————————–
When you execute the statement that generates the ORA-4021, it is possible
during the delay of 5 minutes to detect the reason for the blocking situation.
Following query can be used to find the blocking and waiting sessions:
FYI: You need to run the script called “catblock.sql” first.
=== This script can be found in: $ORACLE_HOME/rdbms/admin/catblock.sql
select /*+ ordered */ w1.sid waiting_session,
h1.sid holding_session,
w.kgllktype lock_or_pin,
w.kgllkhdl address,
decode(h.kgllkmod, 0, ‘None’, 1, ‘Null’, 2, ‘Share’, 3, ‘Exclusive’,
‘Unknown’) mode_held,
decode(w.kgllkreq, 0, ‘None’, 1, ‘Null’, 2, ‘Share’, 3, ‘Exclusive’,
‘Unknown’) mode_requested
from dba_kgllock w, dba_kgllock h, v$session w1, v$session h1
where
(((h.kgllkmod != 0) and (h.kgllkmod != 1)
and ((h.kgllkreq = 0) or (h.kgllkreq = 1)))
and
(((w.kgllkmod = 0) or (w.kgllkmod= 1))
and ((w.kgllkreq != 0) and (w.kgllkreq != 1))))
and w.kgllktype = h.kgllktype
and w.kgllkhdl = h.kgllkhdl
and w.kgllkuse = w1.saddr
and h.kgllkuse = h1.saddr
/
The result looks like:
WAITING_SESSION HOLDING_SESSION lock ADDRESS MODE_HELD MODE_REQU
————— ————— —- ——– ——— ———
16 12 Pin 03FA2270 Share Exclusive
The object that is locked can be found with v$object_dependency and
should be the same as the one mentioned in the ORA-4021 error message.
e.g.
select to_name from v$object_dependency where to_address = ‘03FA2270′;
should give:
TO_NAME
————-
DBMS_PIPE
You can find which library objects are used by each session via following
queries, e.g.
a. for the blocked session:
select distinct kglnaobj from x$kgllk where
kgllkuse in (select saddr from v$session where sid = 16);
b. for the blocking session
select distinct kglnaobj from x$kgllk where
kgllkuse in (select saddr from v$session where sid = 12);
One of those objects can be the cursor or statement that each session is
executing/trying to execute.
You can also use the $ORACLE_HOME/rdbms/admin/utldtree.sql utility to find out
how the dependency tree looks like and which objects are dependent on e.g.
DBMS_PIPE. One of those objects will be the sql statement of the holding
session. A variant script on utldtree.sql stands in [NOTE:139594.1] and
gives which objects an object depends on.
Library cache pins are used to manage library cache concurrency.
Pinning an object causes the heaps to be loaded into memory (if not already loaded).
PINS can be acquired in NULL, SHARE or EXCLUSIVE modes and can be considered like a special form of lock.
A wait for a “library cache pin” implies some other session holds that PIN in an incompatible mode.
P1 = Handle address
P2 = Pin address
P3 = Encoded Mode & Namespace
·Handle address
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Use P1RAW rather than P1
This is the handle of the library cache object which the waiting session wants to acquire a pin on.
查找library cache对象
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The actual object being waited on can be found using
SELECT kglnaown “Owner”, kglnaobj “Object”
FROM x$kglob
WHERE kglhdadr=’&P1RAW’
;
·Pin address
~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Use P2RAW rather than P2
This is the address of the PIN itself.
·Encoded Mode & Namespace
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
In Oracle 7.0 - 8.1.7 inclusive the value is 10 * Mode + Namespace.
In Oracle 9.0 - 9.2 inclusive the value is 100 * Mode + Namespace.
Where:
Mode is the mode in which the pin is wanted. This is a number thus:
o 2 - Share mode
o 3 - Exclusive mode
Namespace is just the namespace number of the namespace in the library cache in which the required object lives:
o 0 SQL Area
o 1 Table / Procedure / Function / Package Header
o 2 Package Body
o 3 Trigger
o 4 Index
o 5 Cluster
o 6 Object
o 7 Pipe
o 13 Java Source
o 14 Java Resource
o 32 Java Data
对于’Consistent Gets’,'’Physical Reads’和’DB Block Gets’的理解和解释
在Oracle的文档中有这样的解释：
db block gets：Number of times a CURRENT block was requested.
consistent gets：Number of times a consistent read was requested for a block.
physical
reads：Total number of data blocks read from disk. This number equals
the value of “physical reads direct” plus all reads into buffer cache.
———————————————
针对以上3个概念进行的说明解释及关系如下：
1、DB Block Gets（当前请求的块数目）
当前模式块意思就是在操作中正好提取的块数目，而不是在一致性读的情况下而产生的块数。正常的情况下，一个查询提取的块是在查询开始的那个时间点上存在的数据块，当前块是在这个时刻存在的数据块，而不是在这个时间点之前或者之后的数据块数目。
2、Consistent Gets（数据请求总数在回滚段Buffer中的数据一致性读所需要的数据块）
这
里的概念是在处理你这个操作的时候需要在一致性读状态上处理多少个块，这些块产生的主要原因是因为由于在你查询的过程中，由于其他会话对数据块进行操
作，而对所要查询的块有了修改，但是由于我们的查询是在这些修改之前调用的，所以需要对回滚段中的数据块的前映像进行查询，以保证数据的一致性。这样就产
生了一致性读。
3、Physical Reads（物理读）
就是从磁盘上读取数据块的数量，其产生的主要原因是：
1、 在数据库高速缓存中不存在这些块
2、 全表扫描
3、 磁盘排序
它们三者之间的关系大致可概括为：
逻辑读指的是Oracle从内存读到的数据块数量。一般来说是’consistent gets’ + ‘db block gets’。当在内存中找不到所需的数据块的话就需要从磁盘中获取，于是就产生了’phsical reads’。
How Do I get Started with Oracle?
November
22, 2006 at 18:23 · Filed under This is actually a fairly common
question and not one that is often addressed adequately. The following
is the, slightly edited text of a reply sent by Howard Rogers http://www.dizwell.com/
to someone who asked this exact question. The post is so good, that
with Howard’s permission I reproduce it here. The ‘here’ referred to
below is the usenet group comp.databases.oracle.server which can be
reached via the link on the left or via your favourite newsreader.
Be
patient. You’re starting from scratch, so there’s a lot to learn, and
much of it may seem very strange to begin with. Visit The online
documentation set to get access to the latest Oracle documentation
(though your CD set will probably include it already). Read the official
Concepts Guide. Then visit sites such as that maintained by Jonathan
Lewis, and Ask Tom. Visit Google and hunt around for advice. Take
nothing on face value: test it yourself to destruction. Lurk here for a
month or two, and try and pick up on the sort of questions being asked,
and ask yourself how *you* would answer them. Then see what answers
actually come through, and compare. When you’re feeling brave, post some
of your answers and see how they are taken by people.
Buy books.
Anything with the names Jonathan Lewis, or Thomas Kyte on the cover are
*extremely* good bets for accurate advice. O’Reilly are good. As are
Apress (used to be Wrox) Avoid anything that mentions OCP (Oracle
Certified Professional). The qualification is not worth a damn, and
leads you straight into myth territory.
If you can afford an Oracle
training course (most people can’t), go. Go to DBA Fundamantals I if you
can… the architecture stuff they cover on that is extremely good (but
you play Russian Roulette with the instructor you get. If the guy starts
reading from the course notes in the first hour, then leave and ask to
be scheduled with someone else at a later date). DBA Fundamentals II is
quite good, but is light on networking, and the Backup and Recovery
stuff is not difficult. Don’t bother with Performance Tuning, because
it’s a badly-written course that addresses none of the real issues. I
think the general thing is to get involved and to get communicating, and
you’ve already started that by posting here. Just don’t stop now.
The
other general thing is to test and test and test, and verify for
yourself. Experiment, and stuff the consequences. The other thing I
would suggest, given your background, is that you learn Oracle at the
command line, and learn *Oracle*. Worry about putting a graphical
front-end app. on top of Oracle later. When you’ve got command-line
Oracle sorted, the graphical front-ends will come as second nature, and
will be better for the understanding you have of the back-end
architecture and inner-workings.
And finally, enjoy yourself. Oracle
is quite a majestic system. It’s got an internal logic that is
beautiful, and the sense of power that you can get from controlling
those internal workings can be quite exhilerating. So have fun.
PL/SQL单行函数和组函数详解
函数是一种有零个或多个参数并且有一个返回值的程序。在SQL中Oracle内建了一系列函数，这些函数都可被称为SQL或PL/SQL语句，函数主要分为两大类：
单行函数
组函数
本文将讨论如何利用单行函数以及使用规则。
SQL中的单行函数
SQL
和PL/SQL中自带很多类型的函数，有字符、数字、日期、转换、和混合型等多种函数用于处理单行数据，因此这些都可被统称为单行函数。这些函
数均可用于SELECT,WHERE、ORDER BY等子句中，例如下面的例子中就包含了TO_CHAR,UPPER,SOUNDEX等单行函数。
SELECT ename,TO_CHAR(hiredate,’day,DD-Mon-YYYY’)
FROM emp
Where UPPER(ename) Like ‘AL%’
ORDER BY SOUNDEX(ename)
单行函数也可以在其他语句中使用，如update的SET子句，INSERT的VALUES子句，DELET的WHERE子句,认证考试特别注意在SELECT语句中使用这些函数，所以我们的注意力也集中在SELECT语句中。
NULL和单行函数
在
如何理解NULL上开始是很困难的，就算是一个很有经验的人依然对此感到困惑。NULL值表示一个未知数据或者一个空值，算术操作符的任何一个操作
数为NULL值，结果均为提个NULL值,这个规则也适合很多函数，只有CONCAT,DECODE,DUMP,NVL,REPLACE在调用了NULL
参数时能够返回非NULL值。在这些中NVL函数时最重要的，因为他能直接处理NULL值，NVL有两个参数：NVL(x1,x2),x1和x2都式表达
式，当x1为null时返回X2,否则返回x1。
下面我们看看emp数据表它包含了薪水、奖金两项，需要计算总的补偿
column name emp_id salary bonus
key type pk
nulls/unique nn,u nn
fk table
datatype number number number
length 11.2 11.2
不是简单的将薪水和奖金加起来就可以了，如果某一行是null值那么结果就将是null，比如下面的例子：
update emp
set salary=(salary+bonus)*1.1
这个语句中，雇员的工资和奖金都将更新为一个新的值，但是如果没有奖金，即 salary + null,那么就会得出错误的结论，这个时候就要使用nvl函数来排除null值的影响。
所以正确的语句是：
update emp
set salary=(salary+nvl(bonus,0)*1.1
单行字符串函数
单行字符串函数用于操作字符串数据，他们大多数有一个或多个参数，其中绝大多数返回字符串
ASCII()
c1是一字符串，返回c1第一个字母的ASCII码，他的逆函数是CHR()
SELECT ASCII(’A') BIG_A,ASCII(’z') BIG_z FROM emp
BIG_A BIG_z
65 122
CHR(＜i＞)[NCHAR_CS]
i是一个数字，函数返回十进制表示的字符
select CHR(65),CHR(122),CHR(223) FROM emp
CHR65 CHR122 CHR223
A z B
CONCAT(,)
c1,c2均为字符串，函数将c2连接到c1的后面，如果c1为null,将返回c2.如果c2为null,则返回c1，如果c1、c2都为null，则返回null。他和操作符||返回的结果相同
select concat(’slobo ‘,’Svoboda’) username from dual
username
slobo Syoboda
INITCAP()
c1为一字符串。函数将每个单词的第一个字母大写其它字母小写返回。单词由空格，控制字符，标点符号限制。
select INITCAP(’veni,vedi,vici’) Ceasar from dual
Ceasar
Veni,Vedi,Vici
INSTR(,[,＜i＞[,]])
c1,c2均为字符串，i,j为整数。函数返回c2在c1中第j次出现的位置，搜索从c1的第i个字符开始。当没有发现需要的字符时返回0,如果i为负数，那么搜索将从右到左进行，但是位置的计算还是从左到右，i和j的缺省值为1.
select INSTR(’Mississippi’,'i’,3,3) from dual
INSTR(’MISSISSIPPI’,'I’,3,3)
11
select INSTR(’Mississippi’,'i’,-2,3) from dual
INSTR(’MISSISSIPPI’,'I’,3,3)
2
INSTRB(,[,i[,j])
与INSTR（）函数一样，只是他返回的是字节，对于单字节INSTRB()等于INSTR()
LENGTH()
c1为字符串，返回c1的长度，如果c1为null，那么将返回null值。
select LENGTH(’Ipso Facto’) ergo from dual
ergo
10
LENGTHb()
与LENGTH()一样，返回字节。
lower()
返回c的小写字符，经常出现在where子串中
select LOWER(colorname) from itemdetail WHERE LOWER(colorname) LIKE ‘%white%’
COLORNAME
Winterwhite
LPAD(,＜i＞[,])
c1,c2均为字符串，i为整数。在c1的左侧用c2字符串补足致长度i,可多次重复，如果i小于c1的长度，那么只返回i那么长的c1字符，其他的将被截去。c2的缺省值为单空格，参见RPAD。
select LPAD(answer,7,'’) padded,answer unpadded from question;
PADDED UNPADDED
Yes Yes
NO NO
Maybe maybe
LTRIM(,)
把c1中最左边的字符去掉，使其第一个字符不在c2中，如果没有c2，那么c1就不会改变。
select LTRIM(’Mississippi’,'Mis’) from dual
LTR
ppi
RPAD(,＜i＞[,])
在c1的右侧用c2字符串补足致长度i,可多次重复，如果i小于c1的长度，那么只返回i那么长的c1字符，其他的将被截去。c2的缺省值为单空格,其他与LPAD相似
RTRIM(,)
把c1中最右边的字符去掉，使其第后一个字符不在c2中，如果没有c2，那么c1就不会改变。
REPLACE(,[,])
c1,c2,c3都是字符串，函数用c3代替出现在c1中的c2后返回。
select REPLACE(’uptown’,'up’,'down’) from dual
REPLACE
downtown
STBSTR(,＜i＞[,])
c1为一字符串，i,j为整数，从c1的第i位开始返回长度为j的子字符串，如果j为空，则直到串的尾部。
select SUBSTR(’Message’,1,4) from dual
SUBS
Mess
SUBSTRB(,＜i＞[,])
与SUBSTR大致相同，只是I,J是以字节计算。
SOUNDEX()
返回与c1发音相似的词
select SOUNDEX(’dawes’) Dawes SOUNDEX(’daws’) Daws, SOUNDEX(’dawson’) from dual
Dawes Daws Dawson
D200 D200 D250
TRANSLATE(,,)
将c1中与c2相同的字符以c3代替
select TRANSLATE(’fumble’,'uf’,'ar’) test from dual
TEXT
ramble
TRIM([[]] from c3)
将c3串中的第一个，最后一个，或者都删除。
select TRIM(’ space padded ‘) trim from dual
TRIM
space padded
UPPER()
返回c1的大写，常出现where子串中
select name from dual where UPPER(name) LIKE ‘KI%’
NAME
KING
单行数字函数
单行数字函数操作数字数据，执行数学和算术运算。所有函数都有数字参数并返回数字值。所有三角函数的操作数和值都是弧度而不是角度，oracle没有提供内建的弧度和角度的转换函数。
ABS()
返回n的绝对值
ACOS()
反余玄函数，返回-1到1之间的数。n表示弧度
select ACOS(-1) pi,ACOS(1) ZERO FROM dual
PI ZERO
3.14159265 0
ASIN()
反正玄函数，返回-1到1，n表示弧度
ATAN()
反正切函数，返回n的反正切值，n表示弧度。
CEIL()
返回大于或等于n的最小整数。
COS()
返回n的余玄值，n为弧度
COSH()
返回n的双曲余玄值，n 为数字。
select COSH(<1.4>) FROM dual
COSH(1.4)
2.15089847
EXP()
返回e的n次幂，e=2.71828183.
FLOOR()
返回小于等于N的最大整数。
LN()
返回N的自然对数，N必须大于0
LOG(,)
返回以n1为底n2的对数
MOD()
返回n1除以n2的余数，
POWER(,)
返回n1的n2次方
ROUND(,)
返回舍入小数点右边n2位的n1的值，n2的缺省值为0，这回将小数点最接近的整数，如果n2为负数就舍入到小数点左边相应的位上，n2必须是整数。
select ROUND(12345,-2),ROUND(12345.54321,2) FROM dual
ROUND(12345,-2) ROUND(12345.54321,2)
12300 12345.54
SIGN()
如果n为负数，返回-1,如果n为正数，返回1，如果n=0返回0.
SIN（)
返回n的正玄值,n为弧度。
SINH()
返回n的双曲正玄值,n为弧度。
SQRT()
返回n的平方根,n为弧度
TAN（)
返回n的正切值,n为弧度
TANH()
返回n的双曲正切值,n为弧度
TRUNC(,)
返回截尾到n2位小数的n1的值，n2缺省设置为0，当n2为缺省设置时会将n1截尾为整数，如果n2为负值，就截尾在小数点左边相应的位上。
单行日期函数
单行日期函数操作DATA数据类型，绝大多数都有DATA数据类型的参数，绝大多数返回的也是DATA数据类型的值。
ADD_MONTHS(,＜i＞)
返回日期d加上i个月后的结果。i可以使任意整数。如果i是一个小数，那么数据库将隐式的他转换成整数，将会截去小数点后面的部分。
LAST_DAY()
函数返回包含日期d的月份的最后一天
MONTHS_BETWEEN(,)
返回d1和d2之间月的数目,如果d1和d2的日的日期都相同，或者都使该月的最后一天，那么将返回一个整数，否则会返回的结果将包含一个分数。
NEW_TIME(,,)
d1是一个日期数据类型，当时区tz1中的日期和时间是d时，返回时区tz2中的日期和时间。tz1和tz2时字符串。
NEXT_DAY(,)
返回日期d后由dow给出的条件的第一天，dow使用当前会话中给出的语言指定了一周中的某一天，返回的时间分量与d的时间分量相同。
select NEXT_DAY(’01-Jan-2000′,’Monday’) “1st Monday”,NEXT_DAY(’01-Nov-2004′,’Tuesday’)+7 “2nd Tuesday”) from dual;
1st Monday 2nd Tuesday
03-Jan-2000 09-Nov-2004
ROUND([,])
将日期d按照fmt指定的格式舍入，fmt为字符串。
SYADATE
函数没有参数，返回当前日期和时间。
TRUNC([,])
返回由fmt指定的单位的日期d.
单行转换函数
单行转换函数用于操作多数据类型，在数据类型之间进行转换。
CHARTORWID()
c 使一个字符串，函数将c转换为RWID数据类型。
SELECT test_id from test_case where rowid=CHARTORWID(’AAAA0SAACAAAALiAAA’)
CONVERT(,[,])
c尾字符串，dset、sset是两个字符集，函数将字符串c由sset字符集转换为dset字符集，sset的缺省设置为数据库的字符集。
HEXTORAW()
x为16进制的字符串，函数将16进制的x转换为RAW数据类型。
RAWTOHEX()
x是RAW数据类型字符串，函数将RAW数据类转换为16进制的数据类型。
ROWIDTOCHAR()
函数将ROWID数据类型转换为CHAR数据类型。
TO_CHAR([[,)
x
是一个data或number数据类型，函数将x转换成fmt指定格式的char数据类型，如果x为日期nlsparm=
NLS_DATE_LANGUAGE 控制返回的月份和日份所使用的语言。如果x为数字nlsparm=NLS_NUMERIC_CHARACTERS
用来指定小数位和千分位的分隔符，以及货币符号。
NLS_NUMERIC_CHARACTERS =”dg”, NLS_CURRENCY=”string”
TO_DATE([,[,）
c表示字符串，fmt表示一种特殊格式的字符串。返回按照fmt格式显示的c,nlsparm表示使用的语言。函数将字符串c转换成date数据类型。
TO_MULTI_BYTE()
c表示一个字符串，函数将c的担子截字符转换成多字节字符。
TO_NUMBER([,[,)
c表示字符串，fmt表示一个特殊格式的字符串，函数返回值按照fmt指定的格式显示。nlsparm表示语言，函数将返回c代表的数字。
TO_SINGLE_BYTE()
将字符串c中得多字节字符转化成等价的单字节字符。该函数仅当数据库字符集同时包含单字节和多字节字符时才使用
其它单行函数
BFILENAME(
,)
dir是一个directory类型的对象，file为一文件名。函数返回一个空的BFILE位置值指示符，函数用于初始化BFILE变量或者是BFILE列。
DECODE(,,[,,,[])
x是一个表达式，m1是一个匹配表达式，x与m1比较，如果m1等于x，那么返回r1,否则,x与m2比较，依次类推m3,m4,m5….直到有返回结果。
DUMP(,[,[,[,]]])
x是一个表达式或字符，fmt表示8进制、10进制、16进制、或则单字符。函数返回包含了有关x的内部表示信息的VARCHAR2类型的值。如果指定了n1,n2那么从n1开始的长度为n2的字节将被返回。
EMPTY_BLOB()
该函数没有参数，函数返回 一个空的BLOB位置指示符。函数用于初始化一个BLOB变量或BLOB列。
EMPTY_CLOB()
该函数没有参数，函数返回 一个空的CLOB位置指示符。函数用于初始化一个CLOB变量或CLOB列。
GREATEST()
exp_list是一列表达式，返回其中最大的表达式，每个表达式都被隐含的转换第一个表达式的数据类型，如果第一个表达式是字符串数据类型中的任何一个，那么返回的结果是varchar2数据类型， 同时使用的比较是非填充空格类型的比较。
LEAST()
exp_list是一列表达式，返回其中最小的表达式，每个表达式都被隐含的转换第一个表达式的数据类型，如果第一个表达式是字符串数据类型中的任何一个，将返回的结果是varchar2数据类型， 同时使用的比较是非填充空格类型的比较。
UID
该函数没有参数，返回唯一标示当前数据库用户的整数。
USER
返回当前用户的用户名
USERENV()
基于opt返回包含当前会话信息。opt的可选值为：
ISDBA 会话中SYSDBA脚色响应，返回TRUE
SESSIONID 返回审计会话标示符
ENTRYID 返回可用的审计项标示符
INSTANCE 在会话连接后，返回实例标示符。该值只用于运行Parallel 服务器并且有 多个实例的情况下使用。
LANGUAGE 返回语言、地域、数据库设置的字符集。
LANG 返回语言名称的ISO缩写。
TERMINAL 为当前会话使用的终端或计算机返回操作系统的标示符。
VSIZE()
x是一个表达式。返回x内部表示的字节数。
SQL中的组函数
组函数也叫集合函数，返回基于多个行的单一结果，行的准确数量无法确定，除非查询被执行并且所有的结果都被包含在内。与单行函数不同的是，在解析时所有的行都是已知的。由于这种差别使组函数与单行函数有在要求和行为上有微小的差异.
组（多行）函数
与单行函数相比，oracle提供了丰富的基于组的，多行的函数。这些函数可以在select或select的having子句中使用，当用于select子串时常常都和GROUP BY一起使用。
AVG([{DISYINCT|ALL}])
返回数值的平均值。缺省设置为ALL.
SELECT AVG(sal),AVG(ALL sal),AVG(DISTINCT sal) FROM scott.emp
AVG(SAL) AVG(ALL SAL) AVG(DISTINCT SAL)
1877.94118 1877.94118 1916.071413
COUNT({*|DISTINCT|ALL} )
返回查询中行的数目，缺省设置是ALL,*表示返回所有的行。
MAX([{DISTINCT|ALL}])
返回选择列表项目的最大值，如果x是字符串数据类型，他返回一个VARCHAR2数据类型，如果X是一个DATA数据类型，返回一个日期，如果X是numeric数据类型，返回一个数字。注意distinct和all不起作用，应为最大值与这两种设置是相同的。
MIN([{DISTINCT|ALL}])
返回选择列表项目的最小值。
STDDEV([{DISTINCT|ALL}])
返回选者的列表项目的标准差，所谓标准差是方差的平方根。
SUM([{DISTINCT|ALL}])
返回选择列表项目的数值的总和。
VARIANCE([{DISTINCT|ALL}])
返回选择列表项目的统计方差。
用GROUP BY给数据分组
正
如题目暗示的那样组函数就是操作那些已经分好组的数据，我们告诉数据库用GROUP
BY怎样给数据分组或者分类，当我们在SELECT语句的SELECT子句中使用组函数时，我们必须把为分组或非常数列放置在GROUP
BY子句中，如果没有用group by进行专门处理，那么缺省的分类是将整个结果设为一类。
select stat,counter(*) zip_count from zip_codes GROUP BY state;
ST ZIP_COUNT
– ———
AK 360
AL 1212
AR 1309
AZ 768
CA 3982
在这个例子中，我们用state字段分类；如果我们要将结果按照zip_codes排序,可以用ORDER BY语句，ORDER BY子句可以使用列或组函数。
select stat,counter(*) zip_count from zip_codes GROUP BY state ORDER BY COUNT(*) DESC;
ST COUNT(*)
– ——–
NY 4312
PA 4297
TX 4123
CA 3982
用HAVING子句限制分组数据
现在你已经知道了在查询的SELECT语句和ORDER BY子句中使用主函数，组函数只能用于两个子串中，组函数不能用于WHERE子串中，例如下面的查询是错误的 ：
错误
SELECT
sales_clerk,SUN(sale_amount) FROM gross_sales WHERE
sales_dept=’OUTSIDE’ AND SUM(sale_amount)>10000 GROUP BY sales_clerk
这个语句中数据库不知道SUM()是什么，当我们需要指示数据库对行分组，然后限制分组后的行的输出时，正确的方法是使用HAVING语句：
SELECT sales_clerk,SUN(sale_amount)
FROM gross_sales
WHERE sales_dept=’OUTSIDE’
GROUP BY sales_clerk
HAVING SUM(sale_amount)>10000;
嵌套函数
函数可以嵌套。一个函数的输出可以是另一个函数的输入。操作数有一个可继承的执行过程。但函数的优先权只是基于位置，函数遵循由内到外，由左到右的原则。嵌套技术一般用于象DECODE这样的能被用于逻辑判断语句IF….THEN…ELSE的函数。
嵌套函数可以包括在组函数中嵌套单行函数，或者组函数嵌套入单行函数或组函数中。比如下面的例子：
SELECT deptno, GREATEST(COUNT(DISTINCT job),COUNT(DISTINCT mgr) cnt,
COUNT(DISTINCT job) jobs,
COUNT(DISTINCT mgr) mgrs
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno;
DEPTNO CNT JOBS MGRS
—— — —- —-
10 4 4 2
20 4 3 4
30 3 3 2